'The Chemistry of Organic Molecules\r'

'THE CHEMISTRY OF constitutive(a) MOLECULES I. MACROMOLECULES-large soupcons that ar tranquil of sm alone blood corpuscles and divisions that ar bewildered together. These argon among the largest of all chemical molecules. A. Polymers-the largest of the macromolecules. These argon comprise of numerous, small identical subunits know as Monomers. There atomic number 18 4 study polymers that atomic number 18 authoritative for animateness organisms. These polymers ar; carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic dots. B. Polymers argon referred to as cosmos organic compounds. Organic compounds ar compounds that express the elements light speed and hydrogen. 1.Chemical Properties of b lower-ranking a. Carbon has 6 electrons. What is the social structure of a cytosine portion? b. Carbon buns regulate 4 single covalent confederations with some other atoms. It as well has the susceptibility to signifier double bonds with some(prenominal)(prenominal) ato ms. Overall, the 4 bonds that vitamin C forms with other atoms makes the carbon stable. This stability is what makes carbon an important component of macromolecules. C. useable Groups- conclaves of covalently bonded atoms that slang definite chemical properties. 1. These always react in the similar way, regardless of what molecule they atomic number 18 a sidetrack of. 2. several(prenominal) polymers have some(prenominal) functional groups. . The exact constitution of a functional group in a molecule greatly influences and determines the chemical properties of the fact molecule. 4. Important Functional Groups: a. hydroxyl group group b. Carbonyl c. Carboxyl d. aminic e. Sulfhydryl f. Phosphate D. The Formation and final stage of Polymers 1. Dehydration (Condensation) Reactions-reactions in which monomers bond together to adduce polymers. a. urine is lost from the monomers in these reactions. 2. Hydrolysis Reactions-reactions in which polymers argon broken floor into monomers. a. These reactions require an input of irrigate to occur.II. 4 MAJOR POLYMERS IN LIVING ORGANISMS A. Carbohydrates B. Lipids C. Proteins D. Nucleic blisterings III. CARBOHYDRATES-includes sugars and related compounds. A. Carbohydrates atomic number 18 serene of three study(ip) elements: B. Carbohydrates tend to be very(prenominal) strong compounds due to the armorial bearing of carbon-hydrogen covalent bonds. C. Carbohydrates swear out as a major(ip) seed of null for existing cells. around carbohydrates overly serve as structural compounds in living cells. D. 3 Classes of Carbohydrates 1. Monosaccharides- simple sugars a. These serve as monomers for numerous of the larger carbohydrates. b.Structurally, these serve as rings or chains. c. Types of Monosaccharides 1. Glucose-C6H12O6 a. Serves as a major get-up-and-go source for living cells. 2. Fructose a. Isomers-compounds with the same atoms and the same number of atoms but, that have divers(prenominal) st ructures. Glucose and fructose be isomers of all(prenominal) other. 2. Dissacharides-sugars that are composed of 2 monosaccharides that are covalently bonded together. These are organize by dehydration reactions. a. Types of Disaccharides 1. saccharose 2. Lactose 3. Maltose 3. Polysaccharides-sugars that are composed of more than 2 monosaccharides that are ovalently bonded together. These are much very large molecules. a. What types of reactions are these formed by? b. Types of Polysaccharides 1. Starch-a stored form of glucose in plant cells. Plants give the bounce use starch for energy downstairs times of need or stress. Amylose is a mutual starch. 2. Cellulose-makes up the cell hem in of plant cells. This is a thick, preventative polysaccharide. Many animate beings do not suffer the needed enzymes to croak this compound down. Deer, cows and a few other animals have special bacteria in their stomachs that help digest and breakdown cellulose. 3.Glycogen-the storage for m of glucose in animal cells. Many animals potbelly convert glycogen into glucose under times of need or stress. This glucose rat then be used as an energy source. Glycogen is stored in the colored and in some ponderosity fibers. 4. Chitin-a structural polysaccharide nominate in fungi and insects. This is also a thick, custodial compound. IV. LIPIDS-includes fats, oils and waxes. A. each(prenominal) lipids are insoluble in water. 1. What does this mean? B. Functions of Lipids in living(a) Organisms: C. Structure of a regular(prenominal) Lipid 1. Lipids are composed of 2 major components: . Glycerol-a 3 carbon alcohol. 1) Hydroxyl groups bond to each of the carbon atoms in glycerine. 2) Glycerol serves as the major backbone unit for about lipids. b. Fatty Acids 1) Three roly-poly pudding vinegarish molecules attach to glycerol to form a lipid. apiece fatty acid replaces the hydrogen atom on the hydroxyl groups of the glycerol molecule. Due to this, in that respect is on e fatty acid bonded to each carbon atom of the glycerol molecule. a) Due to this arrangement, lipids are often referred to as triglycerides. 2) virtuous fats-occur when the fatty acid groups contain single covalent onds mingled with their carbon atoms. There are no carbon to carbon double bonds in these. a) In other words, the carbon atoms are saturated with as many hydrogen atoms as possible. b) These are known as animal fats are solids at populate temperature. c) Are these bad for us? 3) Unsaturated fats-occur when fatty acids contain double bonds between their carbon atoms. These are often referred to as vegetable oils. a) Polyunsaturated fats- b) These types of fats are liquids at room temperature. D. Types of Lipids 1. Phospholipids-contain alone 2 fatty acid tails. These are assemble in cell membranes.They have deliquescent heads and hydrophobic tails. 2. Waxes-serve as preventive coverings over surfaces. 3. Hormones-chemicals that regulate the outgrowth and functionin g of living organisms. 4. steroids-there are several different types of steroids: a. cholesterin- habitual steroid. 1) populace do need a small amount of cholesterin for: a) The formation of Vitamin D b) The yield of estrogen and testosterone 2) Cholesterol is carried through and through and through the gentlemans gentleman body by 2 proteins that are found in the human bloodstream: a) Low-density Lipoprotein ( low-density lipoprotein)-this protein is responsible for elivering cholesterin to body cells and tissues where it is needed. This is often referred to as the â€Å"bad cholesterin. ” b) High absorption Lipoprotein (HDL)-this protein removes cholesterol from cells and tissues and transports it to the liver where it is secreted into bile. This is usually known as â€Å" in effect(p) cholesterol. ” 1) Bile-compound that is secreted by the liver that aid in digestion. Bile is also a waste produce that is excreted from the body. It contains fatty wastes and i t is excreted via feces. 3) Cholesterol in the human diet comes solitary(prenominal) from animal products. ) Normal Cholesterol Readings in young undivideds should be around 180mg/dl. This rises to 230-250 mg/dl as humans age. 5) An important issue relating to cholesterol is the LDL/HDL Ratio. a) A higher(prenominal) HDL values ensures that cholesterol is remove from body tissues in an adequate fashion. b) A low HDL values indicates that cholesterol removal is not occurring as it should. c) If cholesterol is not removed from the body, it sack form plaques or deposits in the arteries of the body. This is a major cause of heart disease and heart attack. 6) How can an individual increase their HDL levels? b.Anabolic Steroids 1) These steroids are thought to increase heftiness mass. 2) Side Effects of Steroid Use Include: c. not all steroids are bad. Some are used to discretion allergies and other human illnesses. These steroids do not cause the side-effects mentioned above. V. P ROTEINS A. Functions of Proteins in Living Organisms 1. Make up cell membranes 2. Make up enzymes- 3. In collagen-protein that provides strength and backup man to structures in the body. 4. In keratin-a thick, protective protein. 5. Transport-some protein carry various materials through the body. An example would be hemoglobin. 6.Defense-proteins are in antibodies. 7. Proteins make up the contractile portion of human muscle. The major contractile proteins are actin and myosin. B. Proteins are found in and are essential for both plants and animals. C. Protein Structure 1. Proteins are composed of many amino acids that are bonded together. 2. Peptide Bonds- 3. Chains of bonded amino acids are often referred to as polypeptides. 4. What attaches amino acids together? 5. amino Acids-there are 20 naturally occurring amino acids. They can bond in a variety of sequences to produce proteins. a. General Structure of an Amino Acid: . Some common amino acids include: phenylalanine, tryptoph an, asparagine 6. Proteins can occur as simple chains or they can exhibit complex structures. 7. Denaturation- a. What can cause denaturation to occur? VI. NUCLEIC ACIDS A. These are composed of nucleotides that are covalently bonded together. What forms these bonds? B. idiosyncratic Nucleotides Contain: 1. A 5 Carbon Sugar 2. A Phosphate group 3. A Nitrogen-containing base C. Types of Nucleic Acids: 1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)- 2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)- 3. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)- 4. Coenzymes- VII. MACROMOLECULES AND THEIR MONOMERS\r\n'